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While these long-lived shrubs have a reputation of being somewhat fussy, newer cultivars bred for disease-resistance and vigor have made growing roses easy for even novice gardeners. A rose garden can be as simple as a single rose specimen interspersed with a few other plants. It can be as elaborate as a formal landscape embellished with hardscaping, arbors, seating, and statuary.

Even smaller spaces can accommodate roses in containers, raised beds, or narrow side yards. Here are the basics of rose garden design, along with some ideas to get you started. Make sure the site gets at least hours of sun a day and has good air circulation to help prevent disease.

Gather ideas from books and online sources for inspiration. Include pathways for easy access. Beds should be small enough to allow for pruning and other maintenance chores. Consider structures such as pergolas, arbors or trellises, as well as seating and decorative accents.

Choose a style: Decide what kind of rose garden you want. Do you want a clean formal look with structured hardscape, or a more natural appearance with other plants mixed in? Roses like rich, well-draining soil with a slightly acidic pH between 6. Amend the soil with compost or other organic matter. For containers, use a high quality all-purpose potting soil and make sure pots have adequate drainage holes. Choose roses that are easy-care and hardy in your region. Select varieties for traits including size, shape, flower color, and form, fragrance and repeat or continual bloom.

Many newer varieties such as Oso Easy Roses are bred for disease-resistance, vigor, and long bloom time. Some older types, particularly hybrid teas, can be higher maintenance and more disease-prone. Plant fragrant rose varieties near a deck or patio to enjoy their fragrance up close. Gardener: Diana Gough. Designer: Phil Thornburg. Photo by: Janet Loughrey. Keep scale in mind when adding hardscape, seating and structures such as arbors and pergolas, which are typically included in rose gardens.

Choose larger rose varieties that will show up better in the landscape. Plant in drifts of 3 to 5 specimens of the same variety for greater visual impact.

Plant larger groupings with the same flower color for a more unified look. Small rose garden: Choose smaller rose varieties that will stay in scale with a more intimate space.

Maximize the use of space by including vertical elements such as climbing roses and trellises. Select a few key rose specimens rather than trying to crowd in a lot of different varieties. Choose roses with lighter colored flowers in hues of white or yellow to make the space look larger and brighter. Backyard rose garden: Include seating areas in different parts of the yard, which will encourage you to spend more time enjoying your rose garden.

Site the rose garden where you can enjoy it from inside the home. Plant fragrant rose varieties near a deck or patio where you can enjoy the sweet perfume. Place a bench, water feature, or statuary at the far end of the rose garden to draw the eye through the landscape and encourage visitors to wander and linger. Gardener: Mary DeNoyer. Include climbing roses to maximize your space.

Train other vining plants such as clematis to grow up through shrub or climbing roses to create exciting flower combinations. Many roses can be successfully grown in containers, a good solution for small spaces, apartment balconies, patios, and decks. Containers should be at least 15 to 20 inches in diameter and 18 to 24 inches deep. Half whiskey barrels work well. Miniature roses can be grown in smaller pots or hanging baskets.

See more on growing roses in pots. Plant a row of taller shrub roses to create privacy from the street. A row of shorter groundcover roses can be planted along a foundation, in a curbside strip, or used to define garden areas. Create a grand entrance to your home with an inviting entryway complete with a rose arbor and adjacent plantings to soften the landscape.

Place climbers along a tall wooden fence to soften the backdrop and break up the expanse of wood. Combine landscape roses with other shrubs that bloom at different times along the front of your home for a season-long display of color.

Garden and photo by: Janet Loughrey. A rose garden can be greatly enhanced by incorporating other plants as part of the overall design. Roses go well with a wide variety of trees, shrubs, perennials and annuals. Choose plants that have the same cultural requirements of full sun, ample water and rich soil. Intersperse plants that flower at different times to extend the bloom season.

These can include perennials or annuals such as petunia , verbena , or calibrachoa. Pair roses with other plants in complementary hues to create drama and contrast. Add different heights to a mixed border or formal rose garden with trees. These can include snowbell Styrax japonicus , fringe tree Chionanthus virginicus , dogwood Cornus and crabapple Malus.

Enhance the landscape by providing contrasting color, texture, and structure with shrubs. These can include boxwood , spirea , bluebeard, and daphne. Use groundcovers as a living mulch and weed-suppressing carpet. Provide contrast with perennials of different size, structure, and color. Good rose companions include alliums, lavender , catmint , salvia , phlox , and speedwell. Climbers can be trained up or alongside rose plants for an extra layer of color. These may include clematis , climbing bleeding heart Dicentra scandens , morning glory and jasmine.

Combine roses with other plants of different heights for a layered tapestry. Gardener: Jeff Clark. Photo: Janet Loughrey.

A formal rose garden is characterized by distinct lines, clipped hedging and structures such as pergolas and arbors.

Gardener and designer: Nancy Cutler. A rose-covered gate marks the transition between the front and back yards. Train roses vertically to add varying layers to the landscape. Train climbing roses along a fence to create an attractive screen for privacy. Roses combine well with many perennials, shrubs, trees, and annuals.

In this front garden, perennials such as catmint, delphinium, and hollyhocks mingle with roses. Get plant information, gardening solutions, design inspiration and more in our weekly newsletter. More about the newsletter. Copyright All Rights Reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited. Get planting advice, garden design tips and trends, monthly checklists for your area, product specials and more in our weekly newsletter. Subscribe No Thanks.

Create a grand entrance to your home with a rose-covered arbor. I give my consent to be emailed I give my consent for my email activity to be tracked. Follow Us. Do you love roses?

– Мигель Буисан. – Понятно. Она получит ваше письмо утром. – Спасибо, – улыбнулся Беккер и повернулся, собираясь уходить.

Because of the smaller temper- ature difference between the air in the ceiling plenum and the supply air inside the supply duct, heat transfer through duct wall in winter can be neglected. Supply conditioning line sr. For a winter-mode basic air-conditioning cycle with a cold air supply without space humidity control, the space relative humidity depends on the space latent load, the humidity ratio of the outdoor air, and the amount of outdoor air intake.

Then from Equation 9. For many comfort systems such as those in offices and stores, in locations where winter is not very cold, humidification is usually not necessary. The basic air-conditioning cycle for a warm air supply without space humidity control is shown in Figure 9. The difference in humidity ratio ws — wch is the water vapor must be added at the humidifier. Humidifying capacity can be calculated from Equation 9.

An outdoor air and recirculating air mixture is often used for the required cold air supply. An air washer is adopted for winter humidification. When all outdoor air is admitted, it is an open cycle. Outdoor air is cooled and often dehumidified to point cc. After absorbing fan and duct heat gains, it is supplied to the conditioned space. An all- outdoor air-operating mode before the space is occupied is often called an air purge operation, used to dilute space air contaminants.

The air system is usually started before the space is occupied in cool- down mode to cool the space air until the space temperature falls within predetermined limits. If dilution of indoor air contaminants is not necessary, only recirculating space air is used during cool-down or warm-up periods in order to save energy.

A refrigeration system is a combination of components, equipment, and piping, connected in a sequential order to produce the refrigeration effect. Refrigeration systems that provide cooling for air- conditioning are classified mainly into the following categories: 1. Vapor compression systems. In these systems, a compressor s compresses the refrigerant to a higher pressure and temperature from an evaporated vapor at low pressure and temperature. The compressed refrigerant is condensed into liquid form by releasing the latent heat of condensation to the condenser water.

Liquid refrigerant is then throttled to a low-pressure, low-temperature vapor, producing the refrigeration effect during evaporation. Vapor compression is often called mechanical refrigeration, that is, refrigeration by mechanical compression. Absorption systems. In an absorption system, the refrigeration effect is produced by means of thermal energy input. After liquid refrigerant produces refrigeration during evaporation at very low pressure, the vapor is absorbed by an aqueous absorbent.

The solution is heated by a direct- fired gas furnace or waste heat, and the refrigerant is again vaporized and then condensed into liquid form. The liquid refrigerant is throttled to a very low pressure and is ready to produce the refrigeration effect again. Gas expansion systems. In an air or other gas expansion system, air or gas is compressed to a high pressure by compressors.

It is then cooled by surface water or atmospheric air and expanded to a low pressure. Because the temperature of air or gas decreases during expansion, a refrigeration effect is produced. Refrigerants, Cooling Mediums, and Absorbents A refrigerant is a primary working fluid used to produce refrigeration in a refrigeration system. All refrigerants extract heat at low temperature and low pressure during evaporation and reject heat at high temperature and pressure during condensation.

A cooling medium is a working fluid cooled by the refrigerant during evaporation to transport refrigeration from a central plant to remote cooling equipment and terminals. In a large, centralized air- conditioning system, it is more economical to pump the cooling medium to the remote locations where cooling is required. Chilled water and brine are cooling media. They are often called secondary refrig- erants to distinguish them from the primary refrigerants.

A liquid absorbent is a working fluid used to absorb the vaporized refrigerant water after evaporation in an absorption refrigeration system. The solution that contains the absorbed vapor is then heated.

The refrigerant vaporizes, and the solution is restored to its original concentration to absorb water vapor again. A numbering system for refrigerants was developed for hydrocarbons and halocarbons. This digit is omitted if the number is zero. The second digit is the number of carbon atoms minus one. This is also omitted if the number is zero. The third digit denotes the number of hydrogen atoms plus one.

The last digit indicates the number of fluorine atoms. ODP is defined as the ratio of the rate of ozone depletion of 1 lb of any halocarbon to that of 1 lb of refrigerant R Similar to the ODP, halocarbon global warming potential HGWP is an index used to compare the global warming effect of a halocarbon refrigerant with the effect of refrigerant R Classification of Refrigerants Nontoxic and nonflammable synthetic chemical compounds called halogenated hydrocarbons, or simply halocarbons, were used almost exclusively in vapor compression refrigeration systems for comfort air-conditioning until Because chlorofluorocarbons CFCs cause ozone deple- tion and global warming, they must be replaced.

A classification of refrigerants based on ozone depletion follows see Table 9. Zeotropic or nonazeotropic, including near azeotropic, shows a change in composition due to the difference between liquid and vapor phases, leaks, and the difference between charge and circulation. Near azeotropic has a smaller glide than zeotropic.

The midpoint between the dew point and bubble point is often taken as the evaporating and condensing temperature for refrigerant blends. R, R, R, etc. HCFCs are the most widely used refrigerants today. They are transitional or interim refrigerants and are scheduled for a restriction in production starting in Inorganic Compounds These compounds include refrigerants used before , like ammonia R, water R, and air R- They are still in use because they do not deplete the ozone layer.

Also from refrigerant manufacturers. The second is the worst case of fractionation. Halons or BFCs contain bromide, fluorine, and carbon atoms. Until , RB1 was used for very low temperature vapor compression refrigeration systems. It is an agreement to restrict the production and consumption of CFCs and BFCs in the s because of ozone depletion.

In late November , representatives of 93 nations meeting in Copenhagen agreed to phase out CFCs beginning January 1, Restriction on the use of HCFCs will start in , with a complete phaseout by Ra is not miscible with mineral oil; therefore, a synthetic lubricant of polyolester is used.

They are long-term alternatives to R Synthetic polyolester lubricant oil will be used for R There is no major performance differ- ence between R and R Required Properties of Refrigerants A refrigerant should not cause ozone depletion.

A low global warming potential is required. Additional considerations for refrigerant selection are 1. Safety, including toxicity and flammability. Class A refrigerants are of low toxicity. No toxicity was identified when their time-weighted average concentration was less than or equal to ppm, to which workers can be exposed for an 8-hr workday and hr work week without adverse effect.

Class B refrigerants are of higher toxicity and produce evidence of toxicity. Ra and R are in the A1 group, lower toxicity and nonflammable; R in the B1 group, higher toxicity and nonflammable; and R ammonia in the B2 group, higher toxicity and lower flammability. Effectiveness of refrigeration cycle. High effectiveness is a desired property. Table 9. Oil miscibility. Refrigerant should be miscible with mineral lubricant oil because a mixture of refrigerant and oil helps to lubricate pistons and discharge valves, bearings, and other moving parts of a compressor.

Oil should also be returned from the condenser and evaporator for contin- uous lubrication. R is partially miscible. Ra is hardly miscible with mineral oil; therefore, synthetic lubricant of polyolester will be used. Compressor displacement. Ammonia R requires the lowest compressor displacement 1. Then noncondensable gas will not leak into the system.

Halocarbons are compatible with all containment materials except magnesium alloys. Ammonia, in the presence of moisture, is corrosive to copper and brass. Halide torch, electronic detector, and bubble detec- tion are often used. Ideal Single-Stage Vapor Compression Cycle Refrigeration Process A refrigeration process shows the change of the thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant and the energy and work transfer between the refrigerant and surroundings.

Another unit in wide use is ton of refrigeration, or ton. Refrigeration Cycles When a refrigerant undergoes a series of processes like evaporation, compression, condensation, throt- tling, and expansion, absorbing heat from a low-temperature source and rejecting it to a higher temper- ature sink, it is said to have undergone a refrigeration cycle. If its final state is equal to its initial state, it is a closed cycle; if the final state does not equal the initial state, it is an open cycle.

Vapor compression refrigeration cycles can be classified as single stage, multistage, compound, and cascade cycles. A pressure-enthalpy diagram or p-h diagram is often used to calculate the energy transfer and to analyze the performance of a refrigeration cycle, as shown in Figure 9. The saturated liquid and saturated vapor line encloses a two-phase region in which vapor and liquid coexist. The two- phase region separates the subcooling liquid and superheated vapor regions.

In the two-phase region, a given saturated pressure determines the saturated temperature and vice versa. The constant-entropy line is curved upward to the right-hand side in the superheated region. Each kind of refrigerant has its own p-h diagram. Refrigeration Processes in an Ideal Single-Stage Cycle An ideal cycle has isentropic compression, and pressure losses in the pipeline, valves, and other components are neglected.

All refrigeration cycles covered in this section are ideal. Single stage means a single stage of compression. There are four refrigeration processes in an ideal single-stage vapor compression cycle, as shown in Figure 9. Isentropic compression process 1—2 — Vapor refrigerant is extracted by the compressor and compressed isentropically from point 1 to 2. Isothermal condensation process 2—3 — Hot gaseous refrigerant discharged from the compressor is condensed in the condenser into liquid, and the latent heat of condensation is rejected to the condenser water or ambient air.

Throttling process 3—4 — Liquid refrigerant flows through a throttling device e. A portion of the liquid flashes into vapor and enters the evaporator. This is the only irreversible process in the ideal cycle, usually represented by a dotted line. The ideal single-stage vapor compression refrigeration cycle on a p-h diagram is divided into two pressure regions: high pressure pcon and low pressure pev.

Coefficient of Performance of Refrigeration Cycle The coefficient of performance COP is a dimensionless index used to indicate the performance of a thermodynamic cycle or thermal system. The magnitude of COP can be greater than 1. Subcooling increases the refrigeration effect to qrf. The degree of superheating depends mainly on the types of refrigerant feed, construction of the suction line, and type of compressor.

The state point of vapor refrigerant after superheating of an ideal system must be at the evaporating pressure with a specific degree of superheat and can be plotted on a p-h diagram for various refrigerants. Multistage vapor compression systems are classified as compound systems and cascade systems. It may have one high-stage compressor higher pressure and one low-stage compressor lower pressure , several compressors connected in series, or two or more impellers connected internally in series and driven by the same motor.

At the same time, a multistage system has a higher initial cost and more complicated construction. The pressure between the discharge pressure of the high-stage compressor and the suction pressure of the low-stage compressor of a multistage system is called interstage pressure pi, in psia.

Interstage pressure for a two-stage system is usually determined so that the compression ratios are nearly equal between two stages for a higher COP. A flash cooler, sometimes called an economizer, is used to subcool the liquid refrigerant to the saturated temperature corresponding to the interstage pressure by vaporizing a portion of the liquid refrigerant in the flash cooler.

In addition, the liquid refrigerant in the flash cooler is cooled to the saturated temperature corresponding to the interstage temperature before entering the evaporator, which significantly increases the refrigeration effect of this compound system. Two-stage compound systems with flash coolers are widely used in large central air- conditioning systems. Cascade System Characteristics A cascade system consists of two independently operated single-stage refrigeration systems: a lower system that maintains a lower evaporating temperature and produces a refrigeration effect and a higher system that operates at a higher evaporating temperature as shown in Figure 9.

These two separate systems are connected by a cascade condenser in which the heat released by the condenser in the lower system is extracted by the evaporator in the higher system. When the system is shut down in summer, a relief valve connected to a stored tank should be used to relieve the higher pressure of refrigerant at the higher storage temperature.

The main advantages of a cascade system compared with a compound system are that different refrigerants, oils, and equipment can be used for the lower and higher systems. Disadvantages are the overlap of the condensing temperature of the lower system and the evaporating temperature of the higher system because of the heat transfer in the cascade condenser and a more complicated system. Outdoor and indoor design conditions are used to calculate the design space loads.

In energy use calculations, hour-by-hour outdoor climate data of a design day should be adopted instead of summer and winter design values. Air Force, U.

Navy, and Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service. The data are an average of 15 years. An occurrence of less than 2. This design value is often used for evaporative cooling design. A degree day is the difference between a base temperature and the mean daily outdoor air temperature To. The human body requires energy for physical and mental activity.

This energy comes from the oxidation of food. The metabolic rate depends mainly on the intensity of the physical activity of the human body. Heat is released from the human body by two means: sensible heat exchange and evaporative heat loss.

The physiological and environmental factors that affect the thermal comfort of the occupants in an air-conditioned space are mainly: 1. Metabolic rate M determines the amount of heat that must be released from the human body. The operating temper- ature To is the weighted sum of Tr and Trad. Trad is defined as the temperature of a uniform black enclosure in which the surrounded occupant would have the same radiative heat exchange as in an actual indoor environment.

Tr affects both the sensible heat exchange and evaporative losses, and Trad affects only sensible heat exchange. Air velocity of the indoor air vr , in fpm, which affects the heat transfer coefficients and therefore the sensible heat exchange and evaporative loss. Clothing insulation for occupants is typically 0.

Regarding the indoor humidity: 1. Many comfort air-conditioning systems are not equipped with humidifiers. Winter indoor relative humidity should not be specified in such circumstances.

For air-conditioning systems that use flow rate control in the water cooling coil, space indoor relative humidity may be substantially higher in part load than at full load. For space served by air-conditioning systems using low- and medium- efficiency air filters, according to the U.

Total particulate concentration. This concentration comprises particles from building materials, combustion products, mineral fibers, and synthetic fibers. Formaldehyde and organic gases. Formaldehyde is a colorless, pungent-smelling gas. It comes from pressed wood products, building materials, and combustion. Formaldehyde causes eye, nose, and throat irritation as well as coughing, fatigue, and allergic reactions. Formaldehyde may also cause cancer.

Other organic gases come from building materials, carpeting, furnishings, cleaning materials, etc. Radon, a colorless and odorless gas, is released by the decay of uranium from the soil and rock beneath buildings, well water, and building materials. Radon and its decay products travel through pores in soil and rock and infiltrate into buildings along the cracks and other openings in the basement slab and walls. Radon at high levels causes lung cancer. The estimated national average is 1.

These include bacteria, fungi, mold and mildew, viruses, and pollen. They may come from wet and moist walls, carpet furnishings, and poorly maintained dirty air-conditioning systems and may be transmitted by people. Some biological contaminants cause allergic reactions, and some transmit infectious diseases. Combustion products. These include environmental tobacco smoke, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Environmental tobacco smoke from cigarettes is a discomfort factor to other persons who do not smoke, especially children.

Nicotine and other tobacco smoke components cause lung cancer, heart disease, and many other diseases. Nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide are both combustion products from unvented kerosene and gas space heaters, woodstoves, and fireplaces.

Nitrogen dioxide NO2 causes eye, nose, and throat irritation; may impair lung function; and increases respiratory infections. Carbon monoxide CO causes fatigue at low concentrations; impaired vision, headache, and confusion at higher concentrations; and is fatal at very high concentrations.

Houses without gas heaters and gas stoves may have CO levels varying from 0. Human bioeffluents. These include the emissions from breath including carbon dioxide exhaled from the lungs, body odors from sweating, and gases emitted as flatus. There are three basic means of reducing the concentration of indoor air contaminants and improving indoor air quality: 1 eliminate or reduce the source of air pollution, 2 enhance the efficiency of air filtration, and 3 increase the ventilation outdoor air intake.

Dilution of the concentrations of indoor contaminants by outdoor ventilation air is often the simple and cheapest way to improve indoor air quality.

The amount of outdoor air required for metabolic oxidation is rather small. Field measurements of daily maximum CO2 levels in office buildings reported by Persily show that most of them were within the range to ppm. If unusual contaminants or unusually strong sources of contaminants are introduced into the space, or recirculated air is to replace part of the outdoor air supply for occupants, then acceptable indoor air quality is achieved by controlling known and specific contaminants.

This is called an indoor air quality procedure. Clean Rooms Electronic, pharmaceutical, and aerospace industries and operating rooms in hospitals all need strict control of air cleanliness during manufacturing and operations. Space Pressure Differential Most air-conditioning systems are designed to maintain a slightly higher pressure than the surroundings, a positive pressure, to prevent or reduce infiltration and untreated air entering the space directly.

For comfort air-conditioning systems, the recommended pressure differential between the indoor and outdoor air is 0. WG indicates the pressure at the bottom of a top-opened water column of specific inches of height; 1 in. For clean rooms, Federal Standard No. WG with all entryways closed. When the entryways are open, an outward flow of air is to be maintained to prevent migration of contaminants into the clean room.

This browser is no longer supported. Please upgrade your browser to improve your experience. Place climbers along a tall wooden fence to soften the backdrop and break up the expanse of wood. Combine landscape roses with other shrubs that bloom at different times along the front of your home for a season-long display of color. Use low-growing ground cover roses near the front of a mixed border or taller semi-climbers in back to establish height and layers.

A curbside planting of roses underplanted with perennial geraniums offers screening and privacy. Garden and photo by: Janet Loughrey. A rose garden can be greatly enhanced by incorporating other plants as part of the overall design. Roses go well with a wide variety of trees, shrubs, perennials and annuals. Choose plants that have the same cultural requirements of full sun, ample water and rich soil. Intersperse plants that flower at different times to extend the bloom season.

These can include perennials or annuals such as petunia , verbena , or calibrachoa. Pair roses with other plants in complementary hues to create drama and contrast.

Add different heights to a mixed border or formal rose garden with trees. These can include snowbell Styrax japonicus , fringe tree Chionanthus virginicus , dogwood Cornus and crabapple Malus. Enhance the landscape by providing contrasting color, texture, and structure with shrubs. These can include boxwood , spirea , bluebeard, and daphne. Use groundcovers as a living mulch and weed-suppressing carpet.

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This browser is no longer supported. Please upgrade your browser to improve your experience. Find out more. A curbside planting of roses underplanted with perennial geraniums offers screening and privacy. Garden and photo by: Janet Loughrey. A rose garden can be greatly enhanced by incorporating other plants as part of the overall design. Roses go well with a wide variety of trees, shrubs, perennials and annuals.

Good rose companions include alliums, lavender , catmint , salvia , phlox , and speedwell. Climbers can be trained up or alongside rose plants for an extra layer of color. These may include clematis , climbing bleeding heart Dicentra scandens , morning glory and jasmine. Combine roses with other plants of different heights for a layered tapestry.

Gardener: Jeff Clark. Photo: Janet Loughrey. A formal rose garden is characterized by distinct lines, clipped hedging and structures such as pergolas and arbors. Operating System iOS 12 or above. Overview Key:. You can then simply continue using the version you have or choose to upgrade to version 2 for an additional cost. Monitoring, supervision, and inspection of installation; reviewing shop drawings Supervision of commissioning Modification of drawings to the as-built condition; preparation of the operation and maintenance manual Handing over to the property management for operation Design Documents Drawings and specifications are legal documents of a construction contract.

Drawings and specifi- cations complement each other. Drawings should clearly and completely show, define, and present the work.

Adequate plan and sectional views should be drawn. More often, isometric drawings are used to show the flow diagrams for water or the supply, return, and exhaust air. Specifications include the legal contract between the owner and the contractor, installer, or vendor and the technical specifications, which describe in detail what kind of material and equipment should be used and how they are to be installed.

It includes 16 divisions. The Mechanical division is divided into the following: Section No. Title Air Distribution Controls Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing Each section includes general considerations, equipment and material, and field installation. There are two types of specifications: the performance specification, which depends mainly on the required performance criteria, and the or-equal specification, which specifies the wanted vendor. Spec- ifications should be written in simple, direct, and clear language without repetition.

Computer-Aided Design and Drafting With the wide acceptance of the PC and the availability of numerous types of engineering software, the use of computer-aided drafting CAD and computer-aided design and drafting CADD has increased greatly in recent years.

Drafting software used to reproduce architectural drawings is the foundation of CADD. Automated CAD AutoCAD is the leading personal computer-based drafting tool software used in architectural and engineering design firms. Both of them convert the single-line duct layout drawn with CAD to two-dimensional 2D double-line drawings with fittings, terminals, and diffusers. Software for piping system design and analysis can also be integrated with CAD.

The most widely used software for load calculations and energy analysis is Department of Energy DOE Product categories include selection, configuration, performance, price, and maintenance schedule. Product manufacturers provide software including data and CAD drawings for their specific product.

Federal and local codes must be followed. The designer should be thoroughly familiar with relevant codes. However, for design criteria or performance that has not been covered in the codes, whether the ASHRAE Standard is followed or violated is the vital criterion, as was the case in a recent indoor air quality lawsuit against a designer and contractor.

The lower atmosphere, or homosphere, is composed of moist air, that is, a mixture of dry air and water vapor. Psychrometrics is the science of studying the thermodynamic properties of moist air.

It is widely used to illustrate and analyze the change in properties and the thermal characteristics of the air-conditioning process and cycles.

The composition of dry air varies slightly at different geographic locations and from time to time. The approximate composition of dry air by volume is nitrogen, The variation of water vapor has a critical influence on the characteristics of moist air.

National Bureau of Standards. According to Nelson et al. Therefore, ideal gas equations are used in the development and calculation of psychrometric formulations in this handbook. Although air contaminants may seriously affect human health, they have little effect on the thermo- dynamic properties of moist air. For thermal analysis, moist air may be treated as a binary mixture of dry air and water vapor.

For simplicity, the following assumptions are made during the calculation of the enthalpy of moist air: 1. Their mean values can be taken as 0. In Equation 9. Latent heat of moist air, often represented by whfg0, is the thermal energy associated with the change of state of water vapor.

Two moist air samples of similar dew points Tdew at the same atmospheric pressure have the same humidity ratio w and the same partial pressure of water vapor pw. Liquid water is therefore evaporated into water vapor at the expense of the sensible heat of the moist air. A sling-type psychrometer, as shown in Figure 9. It consists of two mercury-in-glass thermometers. The sensing bulb of one of them is dry and is called the dry bulb. Another sensing bulb is wrapped with a piece of cotton wick, one end of which dips into a water tube.

When unsaturated moist air flows over the surface of the wetted cotton wick, liquid water evaporates from its surface. As it absorbs sensible heat, mainly from the surrounding air, the wet bulb temperature drops. Turning the handle forces the surrounding air to flow over the dry and wet bulbs at an air velocity between to fpm. Distilled water must be used to wet the cotton wick. According to Threlkeld , for a sling psychrometer whose wet bulb diameter is 1 in. Psychrometric Charts A psychrometric chart is a graphical presentation of the thermodynamic properties of moist air and various air-conditioning processes and air-conditioning cycles.

A psychrometric chart also helps in calculating and analyzing the work and energy transfer of various air-conditioning processes and cycles. Psychrometric charts currently use two kinds of basic coordinates: 1. In h-w charts, enthalpy h, representing energy, and humidity ratio w, representing mass, are the basic coordinates. T-w charts. In T-w charts, temperature T and humidity ratio w are basic coordinates.

Psychrometric charts published by Carrier Corporation, the Trane Company, etc. Figure 9. Since enthalpy is the basic coordinate, temperature lines are not parallel to each other. The standard atmospheric pressure is Hg at sea level. Hg, and ft, Both of them are in the normal temperature range. They range from 0 to 0. The moist volume ranges from When pat is given, any additional two of the independent properties determine the state of moist air on the psychrometric chart and the remaining properties.

Software using AutoCAD to construct the psychrometric chart and calculate the thermodynamic properties of moist air is available. It can also be linked to the load calculation and energy programs to analyze the characteristics of air-conditioning cycles. Example 9. Determine the humidity ratio, enthalpy, density, dew point, and thermodynamic wet bulb temperature of the indoor air at design condition. Solution 1.

Since the air-conditioned room is at sea level, a psychrometric chart of standard atmospheric pressure of Plot the state point of the room air at design condition r on the psychrometric chart. Draw a horizontal line toward the humidity ratio scale from point r. Draw a line from point r parallel to the enthalpy line. Draw a line through point r parallel to the moist volume line.

Draw a horizontal line to the left from point r. Draw a line through point r parallel to the thermodynamic wet bulb line. The energy balance and conservation of mass are the two principles used for the analysis and the calculation of the thermodynamic properties of the moist air.

Generally, for a single air-conditioning process, heat transfer or mass transfer is positive. However, for calculations that involve several air-conditioning processes, heat supplied to the moist air is taken as positive and heat rejected is negative.

Both processes are aimed at maintaining a desirable space temperature and relative humidity. Also in Equation 9. A sensible heating process adds heat to the moist air in order to increase its temperature; its humidity ratio remains constant, as shown by line 12 in Figure 9.

A sensible heating process occurs when moist air flows over a heating coil. Heat is transferred from the hot water inside the tubes to the moist air. The sensible cooling process occurs when moist air flows through a cooling coil containing chilled water at a temperature equal to or greater than the dew point of the entering moist air.

The sensible cooling load can also be calculated from Equation 9. Humidifying and Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes In a humidifying process, water vapor is added to moist air and increases the humidity ratio of the moist air entering the humidifier if the moist air is not saturated. Large-scale humidification of moist air is usually performed by steam injection, evaporation from a water spray, atomizing water, a wetted medium, or submerged heating elements.

Some details of their construction and characteristics are covered in a later section. Dry steam in a steam injection humidifying process is often supplied from the main steam line to a grid-type humidifier and injected into the moist air directly through small holes at a pressure slightly above atmospheric, as shown by line 12 in Figure 9.

The slight inclination at the top of line 12 is due to the high temperature of the steam. When moist air flows through an air washer, the moist air is humidified and approaches saturation. The humidity ratio of the moist air is increased while its temperature is reduced. The cooling effect of this adiabatic saturation process is called evaporative cooling.

Because of the fan power heat gain, duct heat gain, and other heat gains providing the latent heat of vaporization, some evaporation takes place due to the heat transfer to the water drops, and the humidity ratio increases further. Such evaporation of oversaturated drops is often a process with an increase of both humidity ratio and enthalpy of moist air. For an air washer, ww may vary from 0. For a pulverizing fan without an eliminator, ww may be up to 0. Cooling and Dehumidifying Process In a cooling and dehumidifying process, both the humidity ratio and temperature of moist air decrease.

Some water vapor is condensed in the form of liquid water, called a condensate. This process is shown by curve m cc on the psychrometric chart in Figure 9. Here m represents the entering mixture of outdoor and recirculating air and cc the conditioned air leaving the cooling coil.

Three types of heat exchangers are used in a cooling and dehumidifying process: 1 water cooling coil as shown in Figure 9. SHRc is shown by the slope of the straight line joining points m and cc. The relative humidity of moist air leaving the water cooling coil or DX coil depends mainly on the outer surface area of the coil including pipe and fins.

Since the AHU or PU is well insulated, the heat transfer between the mixing chamber and ambient air is small and is usually neglected. The cold conditioned air is denoted by subscript cc, the heated air ch, and the bypass air by. Equations 9. Air-Conditioning Cycle and Operating Modes An air-conditioning cycle comprises several air-conditioning processes that are connected in a sequential order.

An air-conditioning cycle determines the operating performance of the air system in an air- conditioning system.

The working substance to condition air may be chilled or hot water, refrigerant, desiccant, etc. Each type of air system has its own air-conditioning cycle. An air- conditioning cycle with all outdoor air is an open cycle. An air-conditioning cycle that conditions the mixture of recirculating and outdoor air, supplies it, recirculates part of the return air, and mixes it again with outdoor air is a closed cycle.

The air economizer mode saves energy use for refrigeration. Continuous modes operate 24 hr a day and 7 days a week. Examples are systems that serve hospital wards and refrigerated warehouses.

An intermittently operated mode usually shuts down once or several times within a hr operating cycle. Such systems serve offices, class rooms, retail stores, etc. The hr day-and-night cycle of an intermittently operated system can again be divided into: 1. Cool-down or warm-up period. When the space is not occupied and the space air temperature is higher or lower than the predetermined value, the space air should be cooled down or warmed up before the space is occupied.

Conditioning period. The air-conditioning system is operated during the occupied period to maintain the required indoor environment. Nighttime shut-down period. The air system or terminal is shut down or only partly operating to maintain a set-back temperature. Summer, winter, air economizer, and continuously operating modes consist of full-load design load and part-load operations. Part load occurs when the system load is less than the design load.

The capacity of the equipment is selected to meet summer and winter system design loads as well as system loads in all operating modes. A single zone is a conditioned space for which a single controller is used to maintain a unique indoor operating parameter, probably indoor temperature.

A basic air-conditioning cycle is the operating cycle of a basic air-conditioning system. In summer mode at design load, recirculating air from the conditioned space, a worship hall, enters the packaged unit through the return grill at point ru. It is mixed with the required minimum amount of outdoor air at point o for acceptable indoor air quality and energy saving. The mixture m is then cooled and dehumidified to point cc at the DX coil, and the conditioned air is supplied to the hall through the supply fan, supply duct, and ceiling diffuser.

Supply air then absorbs the sensible and latent load from the space, becoming the space air r. Recirculating air enters the packaged unit again and forms a closed cycle. Return air is the air returned from the space. Part of the return air is exhausted to balance the outdoor air intake and infiltration.

The summer mode operating cycle consists of the following processes: 1. Sensible heating process, represented by line r ru, due to the return system gain qr.

In this packaged system, the return system heat gain is small and neglected. Adiabatic mixing process of recirculating air at point ru and outdoor air at point o in the mixing box, represented by line ru m o. Cooling and dehumidifying process m cc at the DX coil whose coil load determines the cooling capacity of the system calculated from Equation 9.

Sensible heating process related to the supply system heat gain qs. Supply conditioning process line sr. Design Supply Volume Flow Rate Design supply volume flow rate and cooling and heating capacities are primary characteristics of an air- conditioning system.

Design supply volume flow rate is used to determine the size of fans, grills, outlets, air-handling units, and packaged units. For most comfort systems and many processing air-conditioning o systems, design supply volume flow rate V s.

Specific heat cpa is usually considered constant. For a given qrs. The summer cooling load is often greater than the winter heating load, and this is why qrc or qrs.

Hg Here V sf. Therefore, [ V sf. From Equation 9. In order to provide the o required mass flow rate of supply air, a greater V sf. At ft above sea level, the o o o o rated supply volume flow rate V r. The result is a lower investment and energy cost. When an air-conditioning system serves a conditioned space of a single zone, optimum Tcc, Ts, and Twe can be selected.

For a conditioned space of multizones, Tcc, Ts, and Twe should be selected to satisfy the lowest requirement. In practice, Ts and Twe are often determined according to previous experience with similar projects. Three methods are often used to prevent condensation: 1.

Increase the thickness of the insulation layer on the outside surface. Adopt a supply outlet that induces more space air. Equip with a terminal that mixes the supply air with the space air or air from the ceiling plenum. During the cool-down period, due to the high dew point temperature of the plenum air when the air system is started, the supply air temperature must be controlled to prevent condensation.

Temperature of supply air at summer design conditions 2. Rated volume flow rate of the supply fan 3. Cooling coil load 4. Possibility of condensation at the outside surface of the insulated branch duct to the supply outlet Solution 1. The state points s and cc are then determined as shown in Figure 9. Connect line ro. As shown in Figure 9. Condensation will not occur at the outside surface of the branch duct. Basic Air-Conditioning Cycle — Winter Mode When the basic air-conditioning systems are operated in winter mode, their air-conditioning cycles can be classified into the following four categories: Cold Air Supply without Space Humidity Control.

In winter, for a fully occupied worship hall, if the heat loss is less than the space sensible cooling load, a cold air supply is required to offset the space sensible cooling load and maintain a desirable indoor environment as shown by the lower cycle in Figure 9. Usually, a humidifier is not used. The winter cycle of a cold air supply without humidity control consists of the following air-condi- tioning processes: 1.

Adiabatic mixing process of outdoor air and recirculating air o m r. Sensible heating process due to supply fan power heat gain m sf. Because of the smaller temper- ature difference between the air in the ceiling plenum and the supply air inside the supply duct, heat transfer through duct wall in winter can be neglected. Supply conditioning line sr. For a winter-mode basic air-conditioning cycle with a cold air supply without space humidity control, the space relative humidity depends on the space latent load, the humidity ratio of the outdoor air, and the amount of outdoor air intake.

Cool-Down and Warm-Up Modes In summer, when an air system is shut down during an unoccupied period at night, the space temperature and relative humidity often tend to increase because of infiltration of hot and humid air and heat transfer through the building envelope. The air system is usually started before the space is occupied in cool- down mode to cool the space air until the space temperature falls within predetermined limits. If dilution of indoor air contaminants is not necessary, only recirculating space air is used during cool-down or warm-up periods in order to save energy.

The compressed refrigerant is condensed into liquid form by releasing the latent heat of condensation to the condenser water. Liquid refrigerant is then throttled to a low-pressure, low-temperature vapor, producing the refrigeration effect during evaporation. Vapor compression is often called mechanical refrigeration, that is, refrigeration by mechanical compression. Absorption systems. In an absorption system, the refrigeration effect is produced by means of thermal energy input.

After liquid refrigerant produces refrigeration during evaporation at very low pressure, the vapor is absorbed by an aqueous absorbent. The solution is heated by a direct- fired gas furnace or waste heat, and the refrigerant is again vaporized and then condensed into liquid form.

The liquid refrigerant is throttled to a very low pressure and is ready to produce the refrigeration effect again. Gas expansion systems. In an air or other gas expansion system, air or gas is compressed to a high pressure by compressors. It is then cooled by surface water or atmospheric air and expanded to a low pressure. Because the temperature of air or gas decreases during expansion, a refrigeration effect is produced. Refrigerants, Cooling Mediums, and Absorbents A refrigerant is a primary working fluid used to produce refrigeration in a refrigeration system.

All refrigerants extract heat at low temperature and low pressure during evaporation and reject heat at high temperature and pressure during condensation. A cooling medium is a working fluid cooled by the refrigerant during evaporation to transport refrigeration from a central plant to remote cooling equipment and terminals. In a large, centralized air- conditioning system, it is more economical to pump the cooling medium to the remote locations where cooling is required.

Chilled water and brine are cooling media. They are often called secondary refrig- erants to distinguish them from the primary refrigerants. A liquid absorbent is a working fluid used to absorb the vaporized refrigerant water after evaporation in an absorption refrigeration system. The solution that contains the absorbed vapor is then heated. The refrigerant vaporizes, and the solution is restored to its original concentration to absorb water vapor again.

A numbering system for refrigerants was developed for hydrocarbons and halocarbons. This digit is omitted if the number is zero. The second digit is the number of carbon atoms minus one. This is also omitted if the number is zero. The third digit denotes the number of hydrogen atoms plus one. The last digit indicates the number of fluorine atoms. ODP is defined as the ratio of the rate of ozone depletion of 1 lb of any halocarbon to that of 1 lb of refrigerant R Similar to the ODP, halocarbon global warming potential HGWP is an index used to compare the global warming effect of a halocarbon refrigerant with the effect of refrigerant R Classification of Refrigerants Nontoxic and nonflammable synthetic chemical compounds called halogenated hydrocarbons, or simply halocarbons, were used almost exclusively in vapor compression refrigeration systems for comfort air-conditioning until Because chlorofluorocarbons CFCs cause ozone deple- tion and global warming, they must be replaced.

Near azeotropic has a smaller glide than zeotropic. The midpoint between the dew point and bubble point is often taken as the evaporating and condensing temperature for refrigerant blends. R, R, R, etc. HCFCs are the most widely used refrigerants today. They are transitional or interim refrigerants and are scheduled for a restriction in production starting in Inorganic Compounds These compounds include refrigerants used before , like ammonia R, water R, and air R- They are still in use because they do not deplete the ozone layer.

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Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we’ll email you a reset link. Need an account? Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. Mechanical Engineering Handbook. Pawan Gupta. A short summary of this paper. PDF Pack. People also downloaded these Affinity designer distribute horizontally free.

People also affinity designer distribute horizontally free these free PDFs. Ch09 by hania lahmer. Ch by gurpanchpal taggar. Download Download PDF. Translate PDF. Wang, S. Wang 9. The com- bination of these processes is equivalent to the functions performed by air-conditioning. They are often called comfort air-conditioning systems. In manufacturing buildings, air-conditioning systems are provided for product processing, or for the health and comfort of workers as well as processing, and affinity designer distribute horizontally free called processing air-conditioning systems.

Based on their size, construction, and operating characteristics, air-conditioning systems can be classified as the following.

Individual Room or Individual Systems. An individual air-conditioning system normally employs either a single, self-contained, packaged room air conditioner installed in a window or affinity designer distribute horizontally free a wall or separate indoor and outdoor units to serve an individual room, as shown нажмите чтобы узнать больше Figure 9.

Space-Conditioning Systems or Space Systems. These systems have their air-conditioning—cooling, heating, and filtration—performed predominantly in or above the conditioned space, as shown in Figure 9. Outdoor air is supplied by a separate outdoor ventilation system. Unitary Packaged Systems or Packaged Systems.

These systems are installed with either a single self- contained, factory-assembled packaged unit PU or two split units: an indoor air handler, normally with ductwork, and an outdoor condensing unit with refrigeration compressor s and condenser, as shown in Figure 9. In a packaged system, air is cooled mainly by direct expansion of refrigerant in coils called DX coils and heated by gas furnace, electric heating, or a heat pump effect, which is the reverse of a refrigeration cycle.

Central Hydronic or Central Systems. A central system uses chilled water or hot water from a central plant to cool and heat the air at the coils in an air handling unit AHU as shown in Figure http://replace.me/20364.txt. For energy transport, the heat capacity of water is about times greater than that of air.

Central systems are built-up systems assembled and installed on the site. Packaged systems are comprised of only air system, refrigeration, heating, and control systems. Both central and space-conditioning systems consist of the following. Air Systems. Its function is to condition the air, distribute it, and control the indoor environment according to requirements.

The primary equipment in an air system is an AHU or air handler; both of these include fan, coils, filters, dampers, humidifiers optionalsupply and return ductwork, supply outlets and return inlets, and controls. Water Systems. These systems include chilled water, hot water, and condenser water systems. A water system consists of pumps, piping work, and accessories. The water system is sometimes called the water side of a central or space-conditioning system.

Central Plant Refrigeration and Heating Systems. The refrigeration system in the central plant of a central system is usually in the form of a chiller package with affinity designer distribute horizontally free outdoor condensing unit. The refrigeration system is also called the refrigeration side of a central system.

A boiler and accessories make up the heating system in a central plant for a central system, and a direct-fired gas furnace is often the heating system in the air handler of a rooftop packaged system. Control Systems. Control systems usually consist of sensors, a приведенная ссылка direct digital controller DDCa control device, control elements, personal computer PCand communication network.

Part of the cooled floor area has been counted for both individual and packaged systems. The sum of the floor areas for these three systems therefore exceeds the total cooled area of 57, million ft2.

There are two types of air-conditioning projects: design- affinity designer distribute horizontally free and design-build. A design-bid project separates the design engineering consultant and installation contractors responsibilities. In a design-build project, the design is also done by the installation contractor. A design-build project is usually a small project or a project having insufficient time to go through normal bidding procedures.

Air-conditioning design is a process of selecting the optimum system, subsystem, equipment, and components from various alternatives and preparing the drawings and specifications. Design determines the basic operating characteristics of a system. After an air-conditioning system is designed and constructed, it is difficult and expensive to change its basic characteristics. The foundation of a successful project is teamwork and coordination between designer, contractor, and operator and between mechanical engineer, electrical engineer, affinity designer distribute horizontally free operator, architect, and structural engineer.

Field experience is helpful to the designer. Before beginning the design process it is advisable to visit similar projects that have operated for more than 2 years and talk with the operator to investigate actual performance.

Initiation of a project by owner or developer 2. Organizing a design team 3. Determining the design criteria and indoor environmental parameters 4. Calculation of cooling and affinity designer distribute horizontally free loads 5. Selection of systems, subsystems, and their components 6. Preparation of schematic layouts; sizing of piping and ductwork 7.

Preparation of contract documents: drawings and specifications 8. Competitive biddings by various contractors; evaluation of bids; negotiations and modifications 9. Advice on awarding of contract Monitoring, supervision, and inspection of installation; reviewing shop drawings Supervision of commissioning Modification of drawings to the as-built condition; preparation of the operation and maintenance manual Affinity designer distribute horizontally free over to the property management for operation Design Documents Drawings and specifications are legal documents of a construction contract.

Drawings and specifi- cations complement each other. Drawings should clearly and completely show, define, and present the work. Adequate plan and sectional views should be drawn. More often, isometric drawings are used to show the flow diagrams for water or the supply, return, and exhaust air. Specifications include the legal contract between the owner and the больше информации, installer, or vendor and the technical specifications, which describe in detail what kind of material and equipment should be used and how they are to be installed.

It includes 16 divisions. The Mechanical division is divided into the following: Section No. Title Air Distribution Controls Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing Each section includes general considerations, equipment and material, and field installation. There are two types of specifications: the performance specification, which depends mainly on the required performance criteria, and the affinity designer distribute horizontally free specification, which specifies the ссылка на страницу vendor.

Spec- ifications should be written in simple, direct, and clear language without repetition. Computer-Aided Design and Drafting With the wide acceptance of the PC and the availability of numerous types of engineering software, the use of computer-aided drafting CAD and computer-aided design and drafting CADD has increased greatly in recent years.

Drafting software used to reproduce architectural drawings is the foundation of CADD. Automated CAD AutoCAD is the leading personal computer-based drafting tool software used in architectural and engineering design firms. Both of them convert the single-line duct layout drawn with CAD to affinity designer distribute horizontally free 2D double-line drawings with fittings, terminals, and diffusers.

Software for piping system design and analysis can also be integrated with CAD. The most widely used software for load calculations and energy analysis is Department of Energy DOE Product categories include selection, configuration, performance, price, and maintenance schedule. Product manufacturers provide software including data and CAD drawings for affinity designer distribute horizontally free specific product.

Federal and local codes must be followed. The designer should be thoroughly familiar with relevant codes. However, for design criteria or performance affinity designer distribute horizontally free has not been covered in the codes, whether the ASHRAE Standard is followed or violated is the vital criterion, as was the affinity designer distribute horizontally free in a recent indoor air quality lawsuit against a designer and contractor.

The filter medium is discarded when its final pressure drop is reached — dry and disposable. The face velocity of the panel filter is usually between and fpm.

The initial pressure drop varies from 0. WG and the final pressure drop from 0. They are usually dry and disposable. Air velocity through the medium is 6 to 90 fpm. Face velocity of the air filter is about fpm to match the face velocity of the coil in AHUs and PUs. WG and final pressure drop from 0. Its filter media are made of glass fibers of submicrometer diameter in the form of pleated paper mats.

The medium is dry and disposable. The surface area of the HEPA filter may be 50 times its face area, and its rated face velocity varies from to fpm, normally at a pressure drop of 0. WG for clean filters. The final pressure drop is 0. Sealing of the filter pack within its frame and sealing between the frame and the gaskets are critical factors that affect the penetration and efficiency of the HEPA filter.

Adsorption is physical conden- sation of gas or vapor on the surface of an activated substance like activated carbon. Activated substances are extremely porous. One pound of activated carbon contains 5,, ft2 of internal surface. Activated carbon in the form of granules or pellets is made of coal, coconut shells, or petroleum residues and is placed in trays to form activated carbon beds as shown in Figure 9. Low-efficiency prefilters are used for protection. When air flows through the carbon beds at a face velocity of to fpm, the corresponding pressure drop is 0.

Humidifiers A humidifier adds moisture to the air. For comfort air-conditioning systems, a steam humidifier with a separator as shown in Figure 9. Steam is supplied to a jacketed distribution manifold. It enters a separating chamber with its condensate. Steam then flows through a control valve, throttles to a pressure slightly above atmospheric, and enters a dry chamber.

Due to the high temperature in the surrounding separating chamber, the steam is superheated. Dry steam is then discharged into the ambient air stream through the orifices on the inner steam discharge tubes.

For an air system of cold air supply with humidity control during winter mode operation, an air washer is economical for large-capacity humidification in many industrial applications. An air washer is a humidifier, a cooler, a dehumidifier, and an air cleaner. An air washer usually has an outer casing, two banks of spraying nozzles, one bank of guide baffles at the entrance, one bank of eliminators at the exit, a water tank, a circulating pump, a water filter, and other accessories as shown in Figure 9.

Outer casing, baffles, and eliminators are often made of plastics or sometimes stainless steel. An eccentric inlet connected to the discharge chamber of the spraying nozzle gives centrifugal force to the water stream and atomizes the spraying water. Water is supplied to the spraying nozzle at a pressure of 15 to 30 psig. The distance between two spraying banks is 3 to 4.

The air velocity inside an air washer is usually to fpm. The cooling and heating capacities of an AHU can be varied by using coils of different numbers of rows and fin densities. The size of a PU is determined by its cooling capacity. Normally, the volume flow rate per ton of cooling capacity in PUs is to cfm. In most packaged units whose supply fans have belt drives, the fan speed can be selected so that the volume flow rate is varied and external pressure is met.

It also provides the motive force to circulate the refrigerant through condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator. According to the compression process, refrigeration compressors can be divided into positive dis- placement and nonpositive displacement compressors. A positive displacement compressor increases the pressure of the refrigerant by reducing the internal volume of the compression chamber.

Reciprocating, scroll, rotary, and screw compressors are all positive displacement compressors. The centrifugal com- pressor is the only type of nonpositive displacement refrigeration compressor widely used in refrigeration systems today. Currently used refrigeration compressors are reciprocating, scroll, screw, rotary, and centrifugal compressors.

Reciprocating Compressors In a reciprocating compressor, as shown in Figure 9. The refrigeration capacity of a reciprocating compressor is a fraction of a ton to about tons. Refrigerants R and Ra are widely used in comfort and processing systems and sometimes R- in industrial applications. The maximum compression ratio Rcom for a single-stage reciprocating compressor is about 7.

Capacity control of reciprocating compressor including: on-off and cylinder unloader in which discharge gas is in short cut and return to the suction chamber. Although reciprocating compressors are still widely used today in small and medium-sized refriger- ation systems, they have little room for significant improvement and will be gradually replaced by scroll and screw compressors. Scroll Compressors A scroll compressor consists of two identical spiral scrolls assembled opposite to each other, as shown in Figure 9.

One of the scrolls is fixed, and the other moves in an orbit around the motor shaft whose amplitude equals the radius of the orbit. The two scrolls are in contact at several points and therefore form a series of pockets.

Vapor refrigerant enters the space between two scrolls through lateral openings. The lateral openings are then sealed and the formation of the two trapped vapor pockets indicates the end of the suction process.

The vapor is compressed and the discharge process begins when the trapped gaseous pockets open to the discharge port. Compressed hot gas is then discharged through this opening to the discharge line. In a scroll compressor, the scrolls touch each other with sufficient force to form a seal but not enough to cause wear. The upper limit of the refrigeration capacity of currently manufactured scroll compressors is 60 tons.

A scroll compressor also has only about half as many parts as a reciprocating compressor at the same refrigeration capacity. Few components result in higher reliability and efficiency. A scroll compressor also operates more smoothly and is quieter.

Rotary Compressors Small rotary compressors for room air conditioners and refrigerators have a capacity up to 4 tons. There are two types of rotary compressors: rolling piston and rotating vane.

A typical rolling piston rotary compressor is shown in Figure 9. A rolling piston mounted on an eccentric shaft is kept in contact with a fixed vane that slides in a slot.

Screw Compressors These are also called helical rotary compressors. Screw compressors can be classified into single-screw compressors, in which there is a single helical rotor and two star wheels, and twin-screw compressors. Twin-screw compressors are widely used. A typical twin-screw compressor, as shown in Figure 9. Normally, the male rotor is the driver.

Twin-screw compressors are often direct driven and of hermetic type. Vapor refrigerant is extracted into the interlobe space when the lobes are separated at the suction port. During the successive rotations of the rotor, the volume of the trapped vapor is compressed. When the interlobe space is in contact with the discharge port, the compressed hot gas discharges through the outlet. Oil injection effectively cools the rotors and results in a lower discharge temperature.

Oil also provides a sealing effect and lubrication. A small clearance of 0. The refrigeration capacity of twin-screw compressors is 50 to tons. The compression ratio of a twin-screw compressor can be up to R and Ra are the most widely used refrigerants in comfort systems. Continuous and stepless capacity control is provided by moving a sliding valve toward the discharge port, which opens a shortcut recirculating passage to the suction port.

Twin-screw compressors are more efficient than reciprocating compressors. The low noise and vibra- tion of the twin-screw compressor together with its positive displacement compression results in more applications today. Centrifugal Compressors A centrifugal compressor is a turbomachine and is similar to a centrifugal fan. A hermetic centrifugal compressor has an outer casing with one, two, or even three impellers internally connected in series and is driven by a motor directly or by a gear train.

At the entrance to the first-stage impeller are inlet guide vanes positioned at a specific opening to adjust refrigerant flow and therefore the capacity of the centrifugal compressor. The total pressure rise in a centrifugal compressor, often called head lift, in psi, is due to the conversion of the velocity pressure into static pressure.

Although the compression ratio Rcom of a single-stage centrifugal compressor using R and R seldom exceeds 4, two or three impellers connected in series satisfy most of the requirements in comfort systems. Centrifugal compressors need high peripheral velocity and rotating speeds up to 50, rpm to produce such a discharge velocity.

It is not economical to manufacture small centrifugal compressors. The available refrigeration capacity for centrifugal compressors ranges from to 10, tons.

Centrifugal compressors have higher volume flow per unit refrigeration capacity output than positive displacement compressors. Centrifugal compres- sors are efficient and reliable. Their volumetric efficiency almost equals 1. They are the most widely used refrigeration compressors in large air-conditioning systems. Refrigeration Condensers A refrigeration condenser or simply a condenser is a heat exchanger in which hot gaseous refrigerant is condensed into liquid and the latent heat of condensation is rejected to the atmospheric air, surface water, or well water.

In a condenser, hot gas is first desuperheated, then condensed into liquid, and finally subcooled. ARI Standard specifies the following for evaporators and condensers: Field fouling allowance 0. Air-Cooled Condensers In an air-cooled condenser, air is used to absorb the latent heat of condensation released during desuperheating, condensation, and subcooling.

An air-cooled condenser consists of a condenser coil, a subcooling coil, condenser fans, dampers, and controls as shown in Figure 9. There are refrigeration circuits in the condensing coil. Con- densing coils are usually made of copper tubes and aluminum fins. A condensing coil usually has only two to three rows due to the low pressure drop of the propeller-type condenser fans. A subcooling coil is located at a lower level and is connected to the condensing coil.

Hot gas from the compressor enters the condensing coil from the top. When the condensate increases, part of the condensing area can be used as a subcooling area.

A receiver is necessary only when the liquid refrigerant cannot all be stored in the condensing and subcooling coils during the shut-down period in winter. Cooling air is drawn through the coils by a condenser fan s for even distribution. Condenser fans are often propeller fans for their low pressure and large volume flow rate. A damper s may be installed to adjust the volume flow of cooling air.

The corresponding cooling air temperature difference — cooling air leaving temperature minus outdoor temperature Tca. The condenser temperature difference CTD for an air-cooled condenser is defined as the difference between the saturated condensing temperature corresponding to the pressure at the inlet and the air intake temperature, or Tcon. Air-cooled condensers are rated at a specific CTD, depending on the evaporating temperature of the refrigeration system Tev in which the air-cooled condenser is installed.

For a refrigeration system having a lower Tev, it is more economical to equip a larger condenser with a smaller CTD. The clearance should not be less than the width of the condensing coil. If pcon drops below a certain value because of a lower outdoor temperature, the expansion valve in a reciprocating vapor compression system may not operate properly. Water-Cooled Condensers In a water-cooled condenser, latent heat of condensation released from the refrigerant during conden- sation is extracted by water.

This cooling water, often called condenser water, is taken directly from river, lake, sea, underground well water or a cooling tower. Two types of water-cooled condensers are widely used for air-conditioning and refrigeration: double- tube condensers and horizontal shell-and-tube condensers.

A double-tube condenser consists of two tubes, one inside the other. Condenser water is pumped through the inner tube and refrigerant flows within the space between the inner and outer tubes in a counterflow arrangement. Because of its limited condensing area, the double-tube condenser is used only in small refrigeration systems.

Hot gas from the compressor enters the top inlet and is distributed along the baffle to fill the shell. Hot gas is then desuperheated, condensed, subcooled into liquid, and discharged into the liquid line at the bottom outlet.

Usually one sixth of the volume is filled with subcooled liquid refrigerant. Condenser water enters the condenser from the bottom for effective subcooling. After extracting heat from the gaseous refrigerant, condenser water is discharged at a higher level. Two-pass or three-pass water flow arrangements are usually used in shell-and-tube water-cooled condensers. The two-pass arrangement means that water flows from one end to the opposite end and returns to the original end.

Two-pass is the standard setup. In a shell-and-tube water-cooled condenser, the condensing temperature Tcon depends mainly on the entering temperature of condenser water Tce, the condenser area, the fouling factor, and the configuration of the copper tube. Evaporative Condenser An evaporative condenser uses the evaporation of water spray on the outer surface of the condensing tubes to remove the latent heat of condensation of refrigerant during condensation.

An evaporative condenser consists of a condensing coil, a subcooling coil, a water spray, an induced draft or sometimes forced draft fan, a circulating water pump, a water eliminator, a water basin, an outer casing, and controls as shown in Figure 9. The condensing coil is usually made of bare copper, steel, or sometimes stainless steel tubing. The evaporation of a fraction of condenser water from the saturated air film removes the sensible and latent heat rejected by the refrigerant.

The rest of the spray falls and is collected by the basin. Air enters from the inlet just above the basin. It flows through the condensing coil at a face velocity of to fpm, the water spray bank, and the eliminator.

After air absorbs the evaporated water vapor, it is extracted by the fan and discharged at the top outlet. The water circulation rate is about 1. An evaporative condenser is actually a combination of a water-cooled condenser and a cooling tower. It is usually located on the rooftop and should be as near the compressor as possible.

Clean tube surface and good maintenance are critical factors for evaporative condensers. An evaporative condenser also needs low ambient control similar as in an air-cooled condenser. Comparison of Air-Cooled, Water-Cooled, and Evaporative Condensers An air-cooled condenser has the highest condensing temperature Tcon and therefore the highest compres- sor power input.

An evaporative condenser has the lowest Tcon and is most energy efficient. An evaporative condenser also consumes less water and pump power. The drawback of evaporative condensers is that the rejected heat from the interior zone is difficult to recover and use as winter heating for perimeter zones and more maintenance is required.

Evaporators and Refrigerant Flow Control Devices An evaporator is a heat exchanger in which the liquid refrigerant is vaporized and extracts heat from the surrounding air, chilled water, brine, or other substance to produce a refrigeration effect. Evaporators used in air-conditioning can be classified according to the combination of the medium to be cooled and the type of refrigerant feed, as the following.

Direct expansion DX coils are air coolers, and the refrigerant is fed according to its degree of superheat after vaporization.

DX coils were covered earlier. Direct expansion ice makers or liquid overfeed ice makers are such that liquid refrigerant is forced through the copper tubes or the hollow inner part of a plate heat exchanger and vaporized. The refrig- eration effect freezes the water in the glycol-water that flows over the outside surface of the tubes or the plate heat exchanger.

In direct expansion ice makers, liquid refrigerant completely vaporizes inside the copper tubes, and the superheated vapor is extracted by the compressor. In liquid overfeed ice makers, liquid refrigerant floods and wets the inner surface of the copper tubes or the hollow plate heat exchanger. Only part of the liquid refrigerant is vaporized.

The rest is returned to a receiver and pumped to the copper tubes or plate heat exchanger again at a circulation rate two to several times greater than the evaporation rate. Flooded shell-and-tube liquid coolers, or simply flooded liquid coolers, are such that refrigerant floods and wets all the boiling surfaces and results in high heat transfer coefficients.

A flooded shell-and-tube liquid cooler is similar in construction to a shell-and-tube water-cooled condenser, except that its liquid refrigeration inlet is at the bottom and the vapor outlet is at the top. Flooded liquid coolers can provide larger evaporating surface area and need minimal space. They are widely used in large central air-conditioning systems.

Currently used refrigerant flow control devices include thermostatic expansion valves, float valves, multiple orifices, and capillary tubes. A thermostatic expansion valve is usually installed just prior to the refrigerant distributor in DX coils and direct-expansion ice makers.

A thermostatic expansion valve consists of a valve body, a valve pin, a spring, a diaphragm, and a sensing bulb near the outlet of the DX coil, as shown in Figure 9. The sensing bulb is connected to the upper part of the diaphragm by a connecting tube. When the liquid refrigerant passes through the opening of the thermostatic expansion valve, its pressure is reduced to the evaporating pressure.

Liquid and a small fraction of vaporized refrigerant then flow through the distributor and enter various refrigerant circuits. If the refrigeration load of the DX coil increases, more liquid refrigerant evaporizes. This increases the degree of superheat of the leaving vapor at the outlet and the temperature of the sensing bulb. A higher bulb temperature exerts a higher saturated pressure on the top of the diaphragm. The valve pin then moves downward and widens the opening.

More liquid refrigerant is allowed to enter the DX coil to match the increase of refrigeration load. If the refrigeration load drops, the degree of superheat at the outlet and the temperature of the sensing bulb both drop, and the valve opening is narrower. The refrigeration feed decreases accordingly. Its value can also be adjusted manually by varying the spring tension. A float valve is a valve in which a float is used to regulate the valve opening to maintain a specific liquid refrigerant level.

A lower liquid level causes a lower valve pin and therefore a wider opening and vice versa. In a centrifugal refrigeration system, two or more orifice plates, multiple orifices, are sometimes installed in the liquid line between the condenser and the flash cooler and between the flash cooler and the flooded liquid cooler to throttle their pressure as well as to regulate the refrigerant feed.

A capillary tube, sometimes called a restrictor tube, is a fixed length of small-diameter tubing installed between the condenser and the evaporator to throttle the refrigerant pressure from pcon to pev and to meter the refrigerant flow to the evaporator. Capillary tubes are usually made of copper.

The inside diameter Dcap is 0. Capillary tubes are especially suitable for a heat pump system in which the refrigerant flow may be reversed. Evaporative Coolers An evaporative cooling system is an air-conditioning system in which air is cooled evaporatively. It consists of evaporative coolers, fan s , filters, dampers, controls, and others. A mixing box is optional.

An evaporative cooler could be a stand-alone cooler or installed in an air system as a component. Art and Frame Text Adding scalable art text is perfect for quick headlines and callouts Add body text to designs using frames as containers Create containers of any shape Control alignment, justification, character and paragraph settings Optionally scale text content when scaling the parent text frame Vertically align frame text Fit text frame to contained text Live spell checking Text-on-a-Path Type text along a custom curve or shape Control start and end points Set text on both or either side of lines Convert shapes to text paths Control all the normal text attributes including baseline Text Styles for desktop only Ensure text appears consistent Apply character and paragraph styles Easily update styles cross-document Design from scratch or from text selection Style hierarchies Style groups.

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Here are the basics of rose garden design, along with some ideas to get you started. Make sure the site gets at least hours of sun a day and has good air circulation to help prevent disease. Gather ideas from books and online sources for inspiration. Include pathways for easy access. Beds should be small enough to allow for pruning and other maintenance chores.

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Roses combine well with many perennials, shrubs, trees, and annuals. In this front garden, perennials such as catmint, delphinium, and hollyhocks mingle with roses.

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May 20, · Author affiliations. 1 Department of Energy Conversion and Storage, Technical University of Denmark, DK Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark 2 Peter Gruenberg Institute 7, Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH, Juelich, Germany and JARA-FIT, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany. 3 Instituto de Microelectrónica de Sevilla (IMSE-CNM), . Download Free PDF Download PDF Download Free PDF View PDF. Gene Strehlow (2) Building and System Analytics Dermot McMorrow (18) Mitsubishi Electric Canada. by Muhammed Nihal. Download Free PDF Download PDF Download Free PDF View PDF. Heating, Ventilating, and Air-conditioning SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT Inch-Pound Edition. Copy and paste this code into your website. Your Link . Grow horizontally: Train climbers along a fence to define garden rooms or to soften an unsightly chain link fence. Plant in containers: Many roses can be successfully grown in containers, a good solution for small spaces, apartment balconies, patios, and decks. Containers should be at least 15 to 20 inches in diameter and 18 to 24 inches deep. Kaplan & Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (2 Volume Set) by Benjamin J. Sadock (Editor), Virginia A. Sadock (Editor) Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Publishers; 7th edition (January 15, ).

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Choose plants that have the same cultural requirements of full sun, ample water and rich soil. Intersperse plants that flower at different times to extend the bloom season. These can include perennials or annuals such as petunia , verbena , or calibrachoa. Pair roses with other plants in complementary hues to create drama and contrast. Add different heights to a mixed border or formal rose garden with trees. These can include snowbell Styrax japonicus , fringe tree Chionanthus virginicus , dogwood Cornus and crabapple Malus.

Combine roses with other plants of different heights for a layered tapestry. Gardener: Jeff Clark. Photo: Janet Loughrey. A formal rose garden is characterized by distinct lines, clipped hedging and structures such as pergolas and arbors.

Gardener and designer: Nancy Cutler. A rose-covered gate marks the transition between the front and back yards. Train roses vertically to add varying layers to the landscape.

Train climbing roses along a fence to create an attractive screen for privacy. Roses combine well with many perennials, shrubs, trees, and annuals. In this front garden, perennials such as catmint, delphinium, and hollyhocks mingle with roses. Get plant information, gardening solutions, design inspiration and more in our weekly newsletter.

Copper tubes are staggered in 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, or up to 10 rows. Fins are extended surfaces often called secondary surfaces to distinguish them from the primary surfaces, which are the outer surfaces of the tubes. Copper, steel, or sometimes stainless steel fins are also used. Fins are often in the form of continuous plate fins, corrugated plate fins to increase heat transfer, crimped spiral or smooth spiral fins that may be extruded from the aluminum tubes, and spine pipes, which are shaved from the parent aluminum tubes.

Corrugated plate fins are most widely used. Fin spacing Sf is the distance between two fins. In a water cooling coil, water circuits or tube feeds determine the number of water flow passages. The greater the finned width, the higher the number of water circuits and water flow passages.

Direct Expansion DX Coil In a direct expansion coil, the refrigerant, R, Ra, or others, is evaporated and expanded directly inside the tubes to cool and dehumidify the air as shown in Figure 9. Refrigerant is fed to a distributor and is then evenly distributed to various copper tube circuits typically 0. Air and refrigerant flow is often arranged in a combination of counterflow and cross flow and the discharge header is often located on the air-entering side.

Finally, the vapor refrigerant is discharged to the suction line through the header. At such a temperature, the surface temperature of the coil is often lower than the dew point of the entering air. A condensate drain pan is necessary for each vertically banked DX coil, and a trap should be installed to overcome the negative pressure difference between the air in the coil section and the ambient air.

Face velocity of the DX coil va, in fpm, is closely related to the blow-off of the water droplets of the condensate, the heat transfer coefficients, the air-side pressure drop, and the size of the air system. For corrugated fins, the upper limit is fpm, with an air-side pressure drop of 0. A large DX coil is often divided into two refrigerant sections, each with its own expansion valve, distributor, and discharge header.

They are spaced at a center-to-center distance of 0. These tubes may be staggered in 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, or 10 rows. Chilled water coils are often operated at a pressure of to psig.

As in a DX coil, the air flow and water flow are in a combination of counterflow and cross flow. Then the water cooling coil becomes a dry—wet coil with part of the dry surface on the air entering side and part of the wet surface on the air leaving side. A dry—wet boundary divides the dry and wet surfaces. A condensate drain pan is necessary for a dry—wet coil.

This coil becomes a sensible cooling—dry coil, and the humidity ratio of the conditioned air wa remains constant during the sensible cooling process. Water Heating Coil The construction of a water heating coil is similar to that of a water cooling coil except that in water heating coils hot water is supplied instead of chilled water and there are usually fewer rows, only 2, 3, and 4 rows, than in water cooling coils.

Steam Heating Coil In a steam heating coil, latent heat of condensation is released when steam is condensed into liquid to heat the air flowing over the coil, as shown in Figure 9. Steam enters at one end of the coil, and the condensate comes out from the opposite end.

For more even distribution, a baffle plate is often installed after the steam inlet. Steam heating coils are usually made of copper, steel, or sometimes stainless steel. For a steam coil, the coil core inside the casing should expand or contract freely. The coil core is also pitched toward the outlet to facilitate condensate drainage.

Coil Accessories and Servicing Coil accessories include air vents, drain valves, isolation valves, pressure relief valves, flow metering valves, balancing valves, thermometers, pressure gauge taps, condensate drain taps, and even distribution baffles. They are employed depending on the size of the system and operating and serving requirements. Coil cleanliness is important for proper operation. If a medium-efficiency air filter is installed upstream of the coil, dirt accumulation is often not a problem.

If a low-efficiency filter is employed, dirt accumu- lation may block the air passage and significantly increase the pressure drop across the coil. Coils should normally be inspected and cleaned every 3 months in urban areas when low-efficiency filters are used. Drain pans should be cleaned every month to prevent buildup of bacteria and microorganisms. Outdoor air should be guided by a baffle plate and flow in an opposite direction to the recirculating air stream so that they can be thoroughly mixed without stratification.

Run the chilled water pump for the idle coil with a water velocity of 2. A better method is to drain the water completely. For a hot water coil, it is better to reset the hot water temperature at part-load operation instead of running the system intermittently.

A steam heating coil with inner distributor tubes and outer finned heating tubes provides better protection against freeze-up. Air Filters Air Cleaning and Filtration Air cleaning is the process of removing airborne particles from the air. Air cleaning can be classified into air filtration and industrial air cleaning.

Industrial air cleaning involves the removal of dust and gaseous contaminants from manufacturing processes as well as from the space air, exhaust air, and flue gas for air pollution control. In this section, only air filtration is covered. Air filtration involves the removal of airborne particles presented in the conditioned air.

The purpose of air filtration is to benefit the health and comfort of the occupants as well as meet the cleanliness requirements of the working area in industrial buildings.

An air filter is a kind of air cleaner that is installed in AHUs, PUs, and other equipment to filter the conditioned air by inertial impaction or interception and to diffuse and settle fine dust particles on the fibrous medium. The filter medium is the fabricated material that performs air filtration. Test Methods The performance of air filters is usually tested in a test unit that consists of a fan, a test duct, the tested filter, two samplers, a vacuum pump, and other instruments.

Three test methods with their own test dusts and procedures are used for the testing of low-, medium-, and high-efficiency air filters. The weight arrestance test is used for low-efficiency air filters to assess their ability to remove coarse dusts. Standard synthetic dusts that are considerably coarser than atmospheric dust are fed to the test unit. By measuring the weight of dust fed and the weight gain due to the dust collected on the membrane of the sampler after the tested filter, the arrestance can be calculated.

The atmospheric dust spot efficiency test is used for medium-efficiency air filters to assess their ability to remove atmospheric dusts. Atmospheric dusts are dusts contained in the outdoor air, the outdoor atmosphere. Untreated atmospheric dusts are fed to the test unit. Air samples taken before and after the tested filter are drawn through from identical fiber filter-paper targets.

By measuring the light transmission of these discolored white filter papers, the efficiency of the filter can be calculated. The DOP penetration and efficiency test or simply DOP test is used to assess high-efficiency filters removing dusts particles of 0. According to U. By measuring the concentration of these particles in the air stream upstream and downstream of the tested filter using an electronic particle counter or laser spectrometer, the penetration and efficiency of the air filter can be calculated.

These filters are usually in panels as shown in Figure 9. Their thickness varies from 1 to 4 in. Activated Detergents may be used to wash off dusts so that the filter media can be cleaned and reused — they are therefore called viscous and reusable.

The filter medium is discarded when its final pressure drop is reached — dry and disposable. The face velocity of the panel filter is usually between and fpm. The initial pressure drop varies from 0.

WG and the final pressure drop from 0. They are usually dry and disposable. Air velocity through the medium is 6 to 90 fpm.

Face velocity of the air filter is about fpm to match the face velocity of the coil in AHUs and PUs. WG and final pressure drop from 0. Its filter media are made of glass fibers of submicrometer diameter in the form of pleated paper mats.

Both its sealing and filter media are more efficient than those of a HEPA filter. Activated Carbon Filters These filters are widely used to remove objectional odors and irritating gaseous airborne particulates, typically 0. Adsorption is physical conden- sation of gas or vapor on the surface of an activated substance like activated carbon. Activated substances are extremely porous. One pound of activated carbon contains 5,, ft2 of internal surface. Activated carbon in the form of granules or pellets is made of coal, coconut shells, or petroleum residues and is placed in trays to form activated carbon beds as shown in Figure 9.

Low-efficiency prefilters are used for protection. When air flows through the carbon beds at a face velocity of to fpm, the corresponding pressure drop is 0. Humidifiers A humidifier adds moisture to the air.

For comfort air-conditioning systems, a steam humidifier with a separator as shown in Figure 9. Steam is supplied to a jacketed distribution manifold. It enters a separating chamber with its condensate. Steam then flows through a control valve, throttles to a pressure slightly above atmospheric, and enters a dry chamber. Due to the high temperature in the surrounding separating chamber, the steam is superheated. Dry steam is then discharged into the ambient air stream through the orifices on the inner steam discharge tubes.

The cooling and heating capacities of an AHU can be varied by using coils of different numbers of rows and fin densities. The size of a PU is determined by its cooling capacity. Normally, the volume flow rate per ton of cooling capacity in PUs is to cfm. In most packaged units whose supply fans have belt drives, the fan speed can be selected so that the volume flow rate is varied and external pressure is met.

Selected equipment in a size larger always means a waste of energy and investment. It raises the pressure of refrigerant so that it can be condensed into liquid, throttled, and evaporated into vapor to produce the refrigeration effect. It also provides the motive force to circulate the refrigerant through condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator.

According to the compression process, refrigeration compressors can be divided into positive dis- placement and nonpositive displacement compressors. A positive displacement compressor increases the pressure of the refrigerant by reducing the internal volume of the compression chamber. Reciprocating, scroll, rotary, and screw compressors are all positive displacement compressors. The centrifugal com- pressor is the only type of nonpositive displacement refrigeration compressor widely used in refrigeration systems today.

Currently used refrigeration compressors are reciprocating, scroll, screw, rotary, and centrifugal compressors. Reciprocating Compressors In a reciprocating compressor, as shown in Figure 9. The refrigeration capacity of a reciprocating compressor is a fraction of a ton to about tons.

Refrigerants R and Ra are widely used in comfort and processing systems and sometimes R- in industrial applications. The maximum compression ratio Rcom for a single-stage reciprocating compressor is about 7. Capacity control of reciprocating compressor including: on-off and cylinder unloader in which discharge gas is in short cut and return to the suction chamber.

Although reciprocating compressors are still widely used today in small and medium-sized refriger- ation systems, they have little room for significant improvement and will be gradually replaced by scroll and screw compressors. Scroll Compressors A scroll compressor consists of two identical spiral scrolls assembled opposite to each other, as shown in Figure 9. One of the scrolls is fixed, and the other moves in an orbit around the motor shaft whose amplitude equals the radius of the orbit.

The two scrolls are in contact at several points and therefore form a series of pockets. Vapor refrigerant enters the space between two scrolls through lateral openings. The lateral openings are then sealed and the formation of the two trapped vapor pockets indicates the end of the suction process. The vapor is compressed and the discharge process begins when the trapped gaseous pockets open to the discharge port.

Compressed hot gas is then discharged through this opening to the discharge line. In a scroll compressor, the scrolls touch each other with sufficient force to form a seal but not enough to cause wear. The upper limit of the refrigeration capacity of currently manufactured scroll compressors is 60 tons. A scroll compressor also has only about half as many parts as a reciprocating compressor at the same refrigeration capacity.

Few components result in higher reliability and efficiency. A scroll compressor also operates more smoothly and is quieter. Rotary Compressors Small rotary compressors for room air conditioners and refrigerators have a capacity up to 4 tons. There are two types of rotary compressors: rolling piston and rotating vane. A typical rolling piston rotary compressor is shown in Figure 9. A rolling piston mounted on an eccentric shaft is kept in contact with a fixed vane that slides in a slot.

Vapor refrigerant enters the compression chamber and is compressed by the eccentric motion of the roller. When the rolling piston contacts the top housing, hot gas is squeezed out from the discharge valve. Screw Compressors These are also called helical rotary compressors. Screw compressors can be classified into single-screw compressors, in which there is a single helical rotor and two star wheels, and twin-screw compressors.

Twin-screw compressors are widely used. A typical twin-screw compressor, as shown in Figure 9. Normally, the male rotor is the driver. Twin-screw compressors are often direct driven and of hermetic type. Vapor refrigerant is extracted into the interlobe space when the lobes are separated at the suction port. During the successive rotations of the rotor, the volume of the trapped vapor is compressed.

When the interlobe space is in contact with the discharge port, the compressed hot gas discharges through the outlet. Oil injection effectively cools the rotors and results in a lower discharge temperature. Oil also provides a sealing effect and lubrication. A small clearance of 0. The refrigeration capacity of twin-screw compressors is 50 to tons. The compression ratio of a twin-screw compressor can be up to R and Ra are the most widely used refrigerants in comfort systems.

Continuous and stepless capacity control is provided by moving a sliding valve toward the discharge port, which opens a shortcut recirculating passage to the suction port.

Centrifugal Compressors A centrifugal compressor is a turbomachine and is similar to a centrifugal fan. A hermetic centrifugal compressor has an outer casing with one, two, or even three impellers internally connected in series and is driven by a motor directly or by a gear train. At the entrance to the first-stage impeller are inlet guide vanes positioned at a specific opening to adjust refrigerant flow and therefore the capacity of the centrifugal compressor.

The total pressure rise in a centrifugal compressor, often called head lift, in psi, is due to the conversion of the velocity pressure into static pressure.

It is not economical to manufacture small centrifugal compressors. The available refrigeration capacity for centrifugal compressors ranges from to 10, tons. Centrifugal compressors have higher volume flow per unit refrigeration capacity output than positive displacement compressors.

Centrifugal compres- sors are efficient and reliable. Their volumetric efficiency almost equals 1. They are the most widely used refrigeration compressors in large air-conditioning systems. Refrigeration Condensers A refrigeration condenser or simply a condenser is a heat exchanger in which hot gaseous refrigerant is condensed into liquid and the latent heat of condensation is rejected to the atmospheric air, surface water, or well water.

An air-cooled condenser consists of a condenser coil, a subcooling coil, condenser fans, dampers, and controls as shown in Figure 9.

There are refrigeration circuits in the condensing coil. Con- densing coils are usually made of copper tubes and aluminum fins. A condensing coil usually has only two to three rows due to the low pressure drop of the propeller-type condenser fans.

A subcooling coil is located at a lower level and is connected to the condensing coil. Hot gas from the compressor enters the condensing coil from the top. When the condensate increases, part of the condensing area can be used as a subcooling area. A receiver is necessary only when the liquid refrigerant cannot all be stored in the condensing and subcooling coils during the shut-down period in winter.

Cooling air is drawn through the coils by a condenser fan s for even distribution. Condenser fans are often propeller fans for their low pressure and large volume flow rate.

A damper s may be installed to adjust the volume flow of cooling air. The corresponding cooling air temperature difference — cooling air leaving temperature minus outdoor temperature Tca. The condenser temperature difference CTD for an air-cooled condenser is defined as the difference between the saturated condensing temperature corresponding to the pressure at the inlet and the air intake temperature, or Tcon.

Air-cooled condensers are rated at a specific CTD, depending on the evaporating temperature of the refrigeration system Tev in which the air-cooled condenser is installed. For a refrigeration system having a lower Tev, it is more economical to equip a larger condenser with a smaller CTD. The clearance should not be less than the width of the condensing coil. If pcon drops below a certain value because of a lower outdoor temperature, the expansion valve in a reciprocating vapor compression system may not operate properly.

Water-Cooled Condensers In a water-cooled condenser, latent heat of condensation released from the refrigerant during conden- sation is extracted by water. This cooling water, often called condenser water, is taken directly from river, lake, sea, underground well water or a cooling tower.

Two types of water-cooled condensers are widely used for air-conditioning and refrigeration: double- tube condensers and horizontal shell-and-tube condensers. A double-tube condenser consists of two tubes, one inside the other. Condenser water is pumped through the inner tube and refrigerant flows within the space between the inner and outer tubes in a counterflow arrangement.

Because of its limited condensing area, the double-tube condenser is used only in small refrigeration systems. Hot gas from the compressor enters the top inlet and is distributed along the baffle to fill the shell. Hot gas is then desuperheated, condensed, subcooled into liquid, and discharged into the liquid line at the bottom outlet. Usually one sixth of the volume is filled with subcooled liquid refrigerant. Condenser water enters the condenser from the bottom for effective subcooling.

After extracting heat from the gaseous refrigerant, condenser water is discharged at a higher level. Two-pass or three-pass water flow arrangements are usually used in shell-and-tube water-cooled condensers. The two-pass arrangement means that water flows from one end to the opposite end and returns to the original end. Two-pass is the standard setup. In a shell-and-tube water-cooled condenser, the condensing temperature Tcon depends mainly on the entering temperature of condenser water Tce, the condenser area, the fouling factor, and the configuration of the copper tube.

Evaporative Condenser An evaporative condenser uses the evaporation of water spray on the outer surface of the condensing tubes to remove the latent heat of condensation of refrigerant during condensation. An evaporative condenser consists of a condensing coil, a subcooling coil, a water spray, an induced draft or sometimes forced draft fan, a circulating water pump, a water eliminator, a water basin, an outer casing, and controls as shown in Figure 9. The condensing coil is usually made of bare copper, steel, or sometimes stainless steel tubing.

The evaporation of a fraction of condenser water from the saturated air film removes the sensible and latent heat rejected by the refrigerant. The rest of the spray falls and is collected by the basin. Air enters from the inlet just above the basin. It flows through the condensing coil at a face velocity of to fpm, the water spray bank, and the eliminator.

An evaporative condenser also needs low ambient control similar as in an air-cooled condenser. Comparison of Air-Cooled, Water-Cooled, and Evaporative Condensers An air-cooled condenser has the highest condensing temperature Tcon and therefore the highest compres- sor power input. An evaporative condenser has the lowest Tcon and is most energy efficient.

An evaporative condenser also consumes less water and pump power. The drawback of evaporative condensers is that the rejected heat from the interior zone is difficult to recover and use as winter heating for perimeter zones and more maintenance is required. Evaporators and Refrigerant Flow Control Devices An evaporator is a heat exchanger in which the liquid refrigerant is vaporized and extracts heat from the surrounding air, chilled water, brine, or other substance to produce a refrigeration effect.

Evaporators used in air-conditioning can be classified according to the combination of the medium to be cooled and the type of refrigerant feed, as the following. Direct expansion DX coils are air coolers, and the refrigerant is fed according to its degree of superheat after vaporization.

In liquid overfeed ice makers, liquid refrigerant floods and wets the inner surface of the copper tubes or the hollow plate heat exchanger. Only part of the liquid refrigerant is vaporized. The rest is returned to a receiver and pumped to the copper tubes or plate heat exchanger again at a circulation rate two to several times greater than the evaporation rate. Flooded shell-and-tube liquid coolers, or simply flooded liquid coolers, are such that refrigerant floods and wets all the boiling surfaces and results in high heat transfer coefficients.

Flooded liquid coolers can provide larger evaporating surface area and need minimal space. They are widely used in large central air-conditioning systems. Currently used refrigerant flow control devices include thermostatic expansion valves, float valves, multiple orifices, and capillary tubes. A thermostatic expansion valve is usually installed just prior to the refrigerant distributor in DX coils and direct-expansion ice makers.

This increases the degree of superheat of the leaving vapor at the outlet and the temperature of the sensing bulb. A higher bulb temperature exerts a higher saturated pressure on the top of the diaphragm. The valve pin then moves downward and widens the opening. More liquid refrigerant is allowed to enter the DX coil to match the increase of refrigeration load. If the refrigeration load drops, the degree of superheat at the outlet and the temperature of the sensing bulb both drop, and the valve opening is narrower.

The refrigeration feed decreases accordingly. Its value can also be adjusted manually by varying the spring tension. A float valve is a valve in which a float is used to regulate the valve opening to maintain a specific liquid refrigerant level.

It consists of evaporative coolers, fan s , filters, dampers, controls, and others. A mixing box is optional. An evaporative cooler could be a stand-alone cooler or installed in an air system as a component. There are three types of evaporative coolers: 1 direct evaporative coolers, 2 indirect evaporative coolers, and 3 indirect—direct evaporative coolers. Direct Evaporative Cooler In a direct evaporative cooler, the air stream to be cooled directly contacts the water spray or wetted medium as shown in Figure 9.

Evaporative pads made of wooden fibers with necessary treatment at a thickness of 2 in. The direct evaporation process 12 takes place along the thermodynamic wet bulb line on the psychro- metric chart. Subscript ae indicates the entering air and al the leaving air. Indirect Evaporative Coolers In an indirect evaporative cooler, the cooled-air stream to be cooled is separated from a wetted surface by a flat plate or tube wall as shown in Figure 9.

A wet-air stream flows over the wetted surface so that liquid water is evaporated and extracts heat from the cooled-air stream through the flat plate or tube wall. The cooled-air stream is in contact with the wetted surface indirectly. The core part of an indirect evaporative cooler is a plate heat exchanger. It is made of thin polyvinyl chloride plates 0. As in a direct evaporative cooler, there are also fan s , water sprays, circulating pump, air intake, dampers, controls, etc.

An indirect evaporative cooling process is represented by a horizontal line on a psychrometric chart, which shows that humidity ratio remains constant. If the space air is extracted and used as the wet air intake, the wet air will be exhausted at point x at nearly saturated state. An indirect evaporative cooler could be so energy efficient as to provide evaporative cooling with an EER up to 50 instead of 9 to 12 for a reciprocating compression refrigeration system.

Direct—Indirect Evaporative Cooler. A direct—indirect evaporative cooler is a two-stage evaporating cooler, as shown in Figure 9. Operating Characteristics. For a direct evaporative cooler, face velocity is usually less than fpm to reduce drift carryover. For an indirect evaporative cooler, face velocity vs is usually between to fpm. A higher vs results at a greater air-side pressure drop. Scofield et al. In the direct cooler, conditioned air was further cooled to a dry bulb of Because the installation cost of an indirect—direct cooler is higher than that of refrigeration, cost analysis is required to select the right choice.

Chilled water is then used as a cooling medium to cool the air in the cooling coils in AHUs and terminals. Using common main and branch pipes requires a lengthy changeover from chilled water to hot water or vice versa for a period of several hours. Water systems can also be classified according to their operating characteristics.

Closed System In a closed system, water forms a closed loop for water conservation and energy saving when it flows through the coils, chillers, boilers, heaters, or other heat exchangers and water is not exposed to the atmosphere. Open System In an open system, water is exposed to the atmosphere.

Once-Through System In a once-through system, water flows through a heat exchanger s only once without recirculation. Otherwise, brine or glycol-water should be used. The lower Twe, the higher will be the compressor power input. A pressure loss of 2. Schedule 40 is the standard thickness for a pipe of up to 10 in. For copper tubing, type K is the heaviest, and type L is generally used as the standard for pressure copper tubes.

Steel pipes of small diameter are often joined by threaded cast-iron fittings. Steel pipes of diameter 2 in. Not only pipes, but also their joints and fittings should be considered. During temperature changes, pipes expand and contract. Both operating and shut-down periods should be taken into consideration.

Bends like U-, Z-, and L-bends, loops, and sometimes packed expansion joints, bellows, or flexible metal hose mechanical joints are used. Corrosion, Impurities, and Water Treatments Corrosion is a destructive process caused by a chemical or electrochemical reaction on metal or alloy.

In water systems, dissolved impurities cause corrosion and scale and the growth of microbiologicals like algae, bacteria, and fungi. Scale is the deposit formed on a metal surface by precipitation of the insoluble constituents. In addition to the dissolved solids, unpurified water may contain suspended solids. Currently used chemicals include crystal modifiers to change the crystal formation of scale and sequestering chemicals.

Growth of bacteria, algae, and fungi is usually treated by biocides to prevent the formation of an insulating layer resulting in lower heat transfer as well as restricted water flow.

Chlorine and its compounds are effective and widely used. Blow-down is an effective process in water treatment and should be considered as important as chemical treatments. Piping Arrangements Main and Branch Pipes. In a piping circuit as shown in Figure 9. Reprinted with permission. Chilled or hot water from the coils and heat exchangers is accumulated by the return main pipe through return branch pipes and then returned to the chiller or boiler.

Constant Flow and Variable Flow. In a constant-flow water system, the volume flow rate at any cross- sectional plane of the supply and return mains remains constant during the entire operating period. In a variable-flow water system, the volume flow rate varies when the system load changes during the operating period.

Direct Return and Reverse Return. In a direct return system, the water supplies to and returns from various coils through various piping circuits. Water flow must be adjusted and balanced by using balance valves to provide required design flow rates at design conditions.

In a reverse-return system, as shown in Figure 9. Water flow rates to various coils are easier to balance. In a dual-temperature water system, the piping from the chiller or boiler to the coils can be either a two-pipe system with a supply main and return main as shown in Figure 9. Overview Key:. You can then simply continue using the version you have or choose to upgrade to version 2 for an additional cost.

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